^6 SUBJECTC0NOTESC1F3C/F4C-F5C+F6C)F7C'F8C!F9CF10C0F11CF12C*F13C &F14CB %F15Cg F16C} F17C F18C F19C Aurelian Lucius Domitus Aurelianus c. AD 215 - 275 One of the soldier emperors of the third century he did as much as any man to revive Roman fortunes. he became emperor in AD 270. His first act was to repel barbarian invasions. He then turned his attention to Palmyra where Zenobia had tried to form an iAurelian then moved against Persia but was murdered in a military plot apparently fostered by his secretary alarmed that some misdemeanors might be dicovered. under his rule the Roman empire was decisively reunited and went on the offensive after 40 year Battle of Actium 31 BC Antony sought to invade Italy and gathered his fleet at the gulf of Ambracia. He was blockaded here by Octavian/Agrippa. Morale within his camp was collapsing with many high level desertions. Antony tried to break out to Egypt but was defeated. Cleopatr Battle of Cannae The battle of Cannae in 216 BC was the worst military disaster in Roman history. The ancient sources suggest 80,000 Romans were killed. Modern writers assume something nearer 30,000. Hannibal's convesx crescent-shaped formation gave way under Roman presuThe Romans were commanded by L Aemilius Paullus and C. Terentius Varro. On their side were some 48,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry against 35,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. In defeat the Romans remained utterly defiant. The Senate thanked Varro on his return for not despairing of the Republic. He was one of the few survivors. Battle of Carrhae 53BC An essentially private expedition by Crassus against the Parthians ended in disaster at Carrhae. His expedition had no authority from Rome and the only motive seems to have been his desire for personal military glory to match that of Caesar and Pompey. C Battle of Zama 202 BC The Romans realised that the only way to end the war was to take it to Africa. Scipio (Africanus) was appointed to head the expedition following his successes in Spain. Scipio had been appointed consul for 205 and asked permission to mount the expThe battle marked the end of the second Punic war. Caesar Main events - all dates BC Gaius Julius Caesar 100 birth of Caesar 84 married Cornelia daughter of Cinna 73 elected Pontifex 69 elected quaestor 63 elected pontifex maximus 59 consul 58 - 51 gallic war 49 - 45 civil war 48 elected dictator and consul 46 dictator for life 46 and 45 nine month consulates 44 consul again 44 ides of March - assasinated Caligula Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus AD12 - 41 Son of Germanicus and Agrippina he was nicknamed Caligula (baby boots) by the soldiers. Tiberius seems to have appointed him successor though in language typically obscure. At all events he became empeor in March 37. In October of that year he became serIt is not clear whether he was really unhinged or whether his hellenistic concept of monarchy was simply unacceptable to the Roman nobility. He was an ineffective and cruel ruler, far more autocratic than his predecesors He accepted extravagant honours w Cato the Younger Marcus Porcius Cato 95 - 46 BC Great grandson of Cato the Elder. An utterly uncompromising defender of the Senatorial regime and therefore diehard enemy of Caesar. Although never rising above praetor he nonetheless exerted enormous authority. Caesar despised him and was often defeated by him. It was Cato's intervention that ensured that the Senate voted to execute the Catilinarian conspirators after Caesar's speech seemed to have settled the matter in favour of imprisonment. Again it was CatoAfter the defeat of the Pompeians in Africa in 46 BC he committed suicide. Indeath he was an even greater enemy to Caesar. Cicero wrote a famous pamphlet in favour of Cato. Caesar's reply, the Anticato, was pitched too high and left Cato's fame enhanced. Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero 106-43BC. Cicero was a self made man - a novus homo. He was born in Arpinum some 70 miles from Rome. He was the greatest advocate of his day in a society which valued such skills highly. His consulship (63BC) was notable for the suppression of the Cataline conspirMany of his letters survive (some 900) and we have political speeches and philosophical works also. Together these provide a unique insight into the late Republic. A vain man he was nonetheless hugely talented. As an outsider he lacked power and was swept aside by events. He might have done more to prevent the civil wars but his position was probably too weak to intervene decisively. Claudius Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus 10BC - AD 54 Claudius suffered from some sort of paralysis. His family (esp Livia) feared his disability might also be mental and he was not permitted to take up a public role. This makes his accession in 37 AD on the murder of Caligula all the more surprising. He waHe nonetheless proved a competent emperor though his private life was never other than shambolic. His wife Messalina was notoriously unfaithful and eventually conspired against him with one of her lovers. His freedmen could tolerate infidelity but not thDespite the contempt in which he was held by his contemporaries he undertook or completed many worthwhile engineering projects (acqueducts, a new harbour at Ostia etc) and generally Rome seems to have been well governed. He was a keen scholar of history but none of his works remain. This is a pity as it would have enabled us to judge better whether he was the idiot of repute or the intelligent man presented by Robert Graves. That said it is perhaps suspicious that no wor Domitian Titus Flavianus Domitianus AD 51 - 96 Emperor from 81. He was a competent administrator and although more of an absolute monarch than his predecessors not bllodthirsty at first. In 88 Saturinus rebelled and therafter Domitian became more and more ruthless. By the end his rule had become a rHe despised the Senate and they in turn hated him. After his reign they caused his name to be expunged from public monuments. He was severe in the sphere of public moraity. In 90 the chief vestal virgin, Cornelia, was buried alive for having sexual interIn foreign policy he sems to have followed a sensible course in strenghthening existing frontiers. His work in stabilising the German frontier was successful but misrepresented at the time. He was murdered in a palace plot in 96 AD and was the last of the Flavian dynasty. He was succeeded by Nerva. Fiction The names that come to mind are Robert Graves and Allan Massie. Graves' Claudius books are simply superb. I suspect they have started many people's interest in Roman history. Massie is ok but his narrative drive is less impressive and his heros are hard Less well known is Mario de Carvalho. He is a portuguese writer whos book A God Strolling in the Cool of the Evening has been translated into English. This is an excellent book. It is exciting but the thing that impresses most is the effort he makes to g Contrast this with Lindsay Davies' Falco series which simply gives us 90's political correctness in a toga. Galba Servius Sculpius Galba 3 BC - AD 69 Highly esteemed by Augustus and Tiberius he was also a favourite of Livia, Caligula and Claudius. Governor of Acquitania and consul in 43. Consul again in 60. He marched on Rome at Vindex's invitation and was installed as emperor following Nero's death in 68. Galba was probably too old and inflexible to succeed. He foolishly alienated the praetorians and a legion enrolled by Nero from the fleet by refusing a The legions in Germany rebelled and Galba recruited a younger man to govern alongside him (one Piso). Otho had expected to be chosen and in desperation launched a coup which ended in the murder first of Piso then of Galba. Otho became emperor in his plac Hadrian's Wall Built on the orders of Hadrian between AD 122 - 6. It was 80 Roman miles in length and some 15 feet high excluding battlements. Behind the wall enclosing all but one of the forts lies the Vallum, a ditch 20 feet wide and 8 feet deep. The wall was overrun on the defeat of Albinus in 196-7 and was restored by Severus in 205-7. The wall was again overrun in 367, restored by Count Theodosius in 369 and finally abandoned c. 400 when the fontier became the responsibility of the allied Lowl Key dates Founding of the city 753 BC Start of the Republic 509 BC Tribunate created 494 Twelve tables codified 449 Rome sacked by Celts 390 First Punic war 264 - 241 Second Punic war 218 - 202 Third Punic war 149 - 146 Reforms of the Grachii 133 - 122 Rise of Marius/army reforms 112- 98 Rise of Sulla and his dictatorship 91 - 79Caesars consulship 60 Alesia 52 Munda 45 Death of Caesar 44 Actium 31 Restoration of the Republic 27 Livy Titus Livius 59BC - AD 17 Livy was a provincial and one of the greatest of all the Roman historians. Born in Padua he retained his accent but spent most of his life at Rome. His great work was the History of Rome covering the period from the founding of the City to 9 BC. Of the 1 Nero Nero Claudius Caesar AD 37 - 68 Nero became emperor in AD 54 succeeding Claudius whose death (so many believed) had been brought about by Agrippina Nero's mother. Agrippina no doubt thought she could control her son but he soon became his own master. In 59 he had Agrippina murdered in a farcical affair which involved a collapsing boat. Agrippina survived the shipwreck and was clubbed to death by a soldier. By 62 Burrus was dead and Seneca had retired leaving Nero free to concentrate on his passions in life - charioteering and music. There is no evidence that Nero understood what it meant to govern and his arrogance, vanity and cruelty made him deply unpopuA failed conspiracy led to executions including the forced suicide of the great general Corbulo. In the end a half hearted revolt was allowed to get out of control and Nero was frced to flee having lost all control of the situation. He was quickly hunted down and committed suicide. His last words are supposed to be 'What an artist dies with me'. Otho Marcus Salvius Otho AD 32 - 69 Emperor for a mere 3 months. Otho was governor of Lusitania. He supported Galba and hoped to be his heir. Disappointed and hopelessly in debt he conspired against Galba and murdered him and his close associates. A few months later he committed suicide. His forces were heavily defeated by the Vitellians. Still a more determined man m Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus AD23 - 79 Born at Novum Comum in northern Italy, he was an outstanding example of a successful member of the equestrian order. He began his career in the army in Germany and held a number of procuratorships in Gaul, Spain and Africa. On his return to Rome he devoWhile in charghe of the Roman fleet at Misenum he died in the eruption of Vesuvius. Ironically this was a result of his scientific curiosity which led him to sail to the site to observe the eruption at first hand. Polybius c.200 BC - after 118 Polybius was a Greek historian whose work covered the period from 264 to 146 BC. His task was to explain how Rome came to be the dominant power in the mediterranean. He was born in Megalopolis in Arcadia then part of the Achaean League. He was one of the 1,000 Achaeans detained without trial in Italy following their denouncement by Callicrates, a pro Roman politician. Luckily for him he was taken up by Scipio Amelianus and travelled with him to Spain and to Africa. After the Achaeans were released in 150 he returned to Greece but at Scipio's invitation he attended the siege of Carthage in the third Punic war. Polybius explains how he thinks history should be written. He believes the two most important elements are familiarity with the ground (eg harbours, mountains etc) and personal experience of political/military life. History cannot be written successfullyHis great work was his Universal History of which only a fraction survives intact but of which a good deal suvives through excerpts prepared by later historians. Pompey the Great Gnaeus Pompeius 106 - 48 BC Pompey sided with Sulla in the civil wars of the 80's and it was Sulla who gavi him his title 'Magnus'. Perhaps his greatest moment was his campaign against the pirates who had become a serious menace. The Lex Gabinia gave him command of huge forces and his powers of organisation saw a task that many saw as impossible completed in just three months. After Although determined to behave constitutionally Pompey must take much of the blame for the civil war. He was the one person who had it in his power to prevent it and failed to do so. Perhaps he could not bear the thought of being eclipsed by Caesar who wa Main dates 106 born 80 awarded a triumph for his services in the war against Marius 71 assisted Crassus in the war against Spartacus67 the war against the pirates 66-62 the war agains Mithradates 59 married Julia (Caesar's daughter) 57 awarded command of the corn supply55 consul with Crassus54 death of Julia 52 sole consul49 forced to evacuate Italy 48 Pharsalus Republican institutions The Senate Consuls - the two annually elected chief magistrates. Dictator - in times of crisis one man would hold supreme power for a fixed term (usually 6 months). Tribunes of the people - created to protect the plebs against arbitary arrest etc they were immune form prosecution and could veto decisions of the Senate and the consuls save in times of war. Censors - started in the fourth century BC the two censors had the task of maintaining the lists of the citizenry (eg ensuring only the correct people were classed as equites and so on) Aediles - originally a plebian office from 367 BC of both orders. They had wide responsibilities including public order, water supplies, street maintenace etc. Quaestors - a junior magistracy but one which normally carried entry to the Senate at the end of its term. Sulla enacted that there should be 20 quaestors each year.Praetor - this name was used to instead of consul in the early years of the Republic. Later the urban praetors were responsible for administration of justice within Rome. Gradually diminished in importance but carried the expectation of a governership on Tacitus Gaius Cornelius Tacitus c. AD 56 - c.118 Normally regarded as the greatest of the Latin historians his work comprises The Agricola, The Germania and the Dialogue on Dictators all of which survive in full and (his great works) the Annals (about half survives) and the Histories (about a third suWhile his theme was to disparage the emperors from Augustus onwards (he is particularly unfair on Tiberius) he seems to have been accurate in his facts. He dismisses obvious lies or absurdities even where they might help his case. It is in interpreting tDespite his pessimistic view of Roman society he nontheless balances this with stories of individual heroism. It is not clear he really understood military matters. One writer remarked that it is impossible to understand any battle from one of his descri The 7 Hills Palatine Quirnal Viminal Esquiline Capitol Aventine Caeline The 7 Kings Romulus 753-715 BC Numa Pompilius 715 - 613 Tullus Hostilius 673 - 641 Ancus Marcius 641 - 616 L. Tarquinius Priscus 616 - 579 Servius Tullius 579 - 534 L. Tarquinius Superbus 534 - 509 The Circus Maximus The largest arena in Rome it was a building for spectacles from the time of the Kings. The Circus was periodically repaired and improved. It measured 600x200m and had a capacity of some 320,000. The cicus was used for chariot racing of which the most imp The civil war (Caesar) - Africa and Munda After his return from Egypt Caesar moved quickly to Africa ariving there at the end of 47. There he defeated the Pompeian forces at Thapsus. Cato who had been left in charge of the garrison at Utica committed suicide thus eluding Caesar's mercy which wouAfter summer in Rome Caesar moved to Spain where by rights he should have been defeated at the battle of Munda (45 BC). His opponent was Labienus his old number two from Gaul. Labienus' skillful manouvering drew Caesar into accepting battle on unfavourab The civil war (Caesar) - the war against Pompey Unwilling to return to Rome except as Consul (and thus legally protected) Caesar launched a lightening offensive in the spring of 49 BC. Given his readiness and their unreadiness it is odd that his opponents were willing to force him to make this choice.After securing his rear by defeating the Pompeian armies in Spain Caesar followed with half his army (transports were insufficient) and the rest followed with Antony after an agonising delay. Caesar attempted to blockade Pompey with circumvallations but The civil war (Caesar) - the Alexandran CampaignAfter following Pompey to Egypt (48 BC) Caesar allowed himself to become embroiled in events there. He took it upon himself to settle the dynastic dispute between Ptolemy and Cleopatra in favour of the latter. Ptolemy's ministers set the royal army on CaAfter defeating Ptolemy Caesar is suposed to have spent two months sailing on the Nile with Cleopatra who had become his mistress. In 47 Caesar returned to Rome defeating on his way Pharnaces in a lightning campaign. Despite the speed of the campaign the battle of Zela was nonetheless hard fought. It was of the campaign that Caesar made his famous boast 'Veni Vidi Vici' which in the The Colosseum Begun by Vespasian and completed under Titus in AD 80. It was originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre. The name Colosseum began to be used in the middle ages and comes from a giant statue of Nero nearby. The stadium held some 50,000 spectators. It remained in use for hundreds of years being periodically repaired. It was used for the last time around AD 523. Whether Christians were ever martyred there is unclear. Gladiatorial contests were ended in AD 397, renewed under Valentius III and finally ended from AD 438. After this only wild beast hunts were permitted. The conquest of Gaul (Caesar) The Gallic war was launched in 58 BC so far as we can tell without any authority from the Senate. The motive of the war seems to have been entirely to allow Caesar to obtain money and prestige. It was a spectacular success. The war began with Caesar preventing the migration of the Helvetii. He then destroyed the army of the German prince Ariovistus who Caesar believed would otherwise have dominaed the Gauls. In the next five years Caesar conquered the whole of Gaul even finIn 52 Caesar faced a serious crisis when the Gauls under Vercingetorix rose in rebellion. Caesar was defeated at Gergovia and forced to withdraw from his siege of that town. However Vercingetorix was repulsed and retired to Alesia. Here Caesar completed There were further outbreaks but Alesia marked the end of serious resistance. It is notable that no revolts were attempted during the civil wars of the 40's and 30's. The Pantheon The first building was erected in 27 BC by Agrippa. It was completely rebuit by Hadrian who inscribed Agrippa's name on the frieze of the porch. Behind the porch lies a cylindrical temple with a dome. The height of the dome (43.3m) is precisely that of the diameter so the internal space is a perfect sphere. It is the largest dome ever covered with masonry. The Second Punic War 218 - 202 BC Main events 218 Hannibal leaves New Carthage. Victorious at the battles of the Ticinus and Trebia 217 Battle of Trasimene - Roman force annihilated. 216 Battle of Cannae. Some 80,000 Romans killed. Capua goes over to Hannibal. 207 Hasdrubal defeated and killed. 204 Scipio lands in Africa 202 Battle of Zama. Rome victorious. By the end of the war Rome had changed. She was no longer the dominant force of a confederacy but rather the absolute ruler. The senate had emerged victorious and its power and prestige was greatly enhanced. It would remain dominant util the time of the The Twelve Caesars 1. Julius Caesar 100BC-44BC, dictator from 48 BC 2. Augustus 63BC-AD14, reigned from 31BC - AD14 3. Tiberius 42BC-AD37, reigned AD14 - 37 4. Caligula AD12-41, reigned AD 37-41 5. Claudius 10BC-AD54, reigned AD41-54 6. Nero AD37-68, reigned AD54-68 7. Galba 3BC-AD69, reigned AD68-69 8. Otho AD 32-69, reigned AD69 9. Vitellius AD15-69, reigned AD69 10. Vespasian AD9-79, reigned AD69-79 11. Titus AD39-81, reigned AD79-81 12. Domitian AD 51-96, reigned AD81-96 Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus 42 BC - 16 March AD 37 His reign began following the death of Augustus in AD 14 when he was 55. Before that he had shown himself a superb general. Never anything but naturally morose he was reduced to despair when required by Augustus to give up his first wife Vispania and marAs a ruler Tiberius was efficient and careful. Many thought him mean because he spent little on entertainment. His reign was blighted by treason trials though much of our view here results from Tacitus' biased account. He retired to Capri in AD 26 but continued to govern from there. A conspiracy by his trusted lieutenant,Sejanus, was supressed in 31 AD. I like Tiberius very much. He had no time for flatterers and if he was misanthropic he had some cause. On governing he remarked that he 'had a wolf by the ears'. On leaving the Senate he was heard to mutter 'Oh generation fit for slavery!' He refused to I take him to have been a cynic who tried to do his duty. If nothing else his pride drove him to do this. In the end it was not enough. When he died he was unmourned. He was succeeded by Caligula. Titus Titus Flavius Vespasianus AD39 - 81 Emperor from AD 79 to 81 Titus was the eldest son of Vespasian. Interestingly he was educated alongside Britannicus, Claudius' son. He was present at the banquet at which he was murdered. When Vespasian left Judaea to come to Rome Titus took over responsibility for the Jewish war capturing Jerusalem in AD 70. It is during his period in Judaea that he began his liason with Berenice. He effectively ruled as junior partner alongside his father. As praetorian prefect he was in effect the military arm of the regime and his role in suppressing dissent made him disliked. The praetorian guard arrested those who were suspected of disloyaltyHe reigned only two years before being struck down by a fever. His death was greatly lamented (though Suetonius tells us that the senators spoke of him 'with greater gratitude and praise than they eves showed when he was alive'). Trajan's Markets Built in AD 100 - 112 between the Quirnal and Capitoline hills. The markets were a commercial quarter consisting of some 150 shops and offices together with a market hall. They were part of a larger complex of forum, basilica, libraries and the markets.The architect was Apollodorus. The markets themselves were built on five stories, were utilitarian and massive rather than grandiose and beautiful. A precursor to the architecture of the later empire. Vespasian Titus Flavius Vespasianus AD 9 - 79 Born at Sabine Reate his father was a tax gatherer. His mother was of equestrian rank but her brother had entered the Senate. He commanded the left wing of the army in the successful invasion of Britain under Claudius. He obtained a suffect consulship unOn Nero's death he supported Galba but when he fell Vespasian began his own bid. His troops overwhelmed Vitellius' and he became emperor. He dated his rule from July 69 (the date the legions acclaimed him) rather than December when the Senate endorsed hiHe was known for his parsimony but following the civil wars which themselves came on top of Nero's extravagance this was simply common sense. Indeed this is really the quality which shines through his reign. His last words are suitably ironic. They are s Vitellius Aulus Vitellius AD 15 - 69 A favourite of Caligula, Claudius and Nero. Commander of the legions in lower Germany his forces defeated Otho's easily enough but he then behaved as if the war was won. He quickly won a reputation for incompetence and debauchery. When Vespasian's legions marched against him his forces were ill prepared and were defeated in an initial engagement. Vitellius would have surrendered to Vespasian's brother, Flavius Sabinus, but his supporters rioted. Rome was still full of troops loyal Third Punic War The end of the second Punic war in 202 resulted in Carthage paying a huge indemnity and the virtual destructuion of her fleet. In addition there were political constraints which allowed Massinissa of Numidia to carry out an aggressive policy against the After further provocation Carthage declared war against Massinissa in 151. The war went badly for them and they quickly sent apologies to Rome. Rome was in no mood to listen and her armies arrived in Africa in 149. The Carthaginians sued for peace but co Trajan Marcus Ulpius Traianus AD 53 - 117 Emperor from AD 98. A military man he was Governor of Upper Germany when he was chosen by Nerva as his adopted son and heir. This reflected Nerva's need to placate the praetorians. Nerva died in 98. As emperor Trajan pursued a policy of courtesy towards the Senate and expansion militarily. He conquered Dacia (modern Romania) in two campaigns against Decelabus in 102 and 106. The removal of Decelabus who had proved a bitter enemy of Rome was probablyHis campaign against Parthia was initially successful. Armenia was taken in 114 and the Parthian capital in 115. However revolts by the Jews and within Mesopotamia and attacks by the Parthians left the conquests precarious. Trajan died on his journey homTrajan is famous among other things for his reply to Pliny who wished to know what to do with Christians. His reply was that if they persisted after being given the opportunity to recant they should be punished. But they were not to be sought out and ann Hannibal Son of Hamilcar Barca. Born 247 BC, died 183 BC. Hannibal was the most terrible enemy Rome had faced until this time. He led the Carthaginian army over the Alps in 218. His strategy seems to have been to break up the Roman confederacy and thereby reduce Rome to an insignificant power. He aimed to achieHowever the strategy failed. Central Italy remained loyal to the Romans who now refused to meet Hannibal in open combat. Those cities in the South that did go over to him needed to be defended. Eventually he ceased to be a threat and was recalled to CartGenerally believed to be one of the worlds greatest soldiers he must nonetheless take responsibility for the Second Punic war, one of the bloodiest the world has ever seen. Hadrian Publius Aelius Hadrianus. AD 76 - 138. Hadrian became emperor in 117 following the death of Trajan. Doubts surround his accession - did Trajan really appoint him successor. Hadrian quickly gave up the atempt to hold Parthia and generally his approach was to seek the security of the empire behind existing frontiers. To this extent his reign can be seen as a turning point. Another interesting aspect of his approach was to see Rome as only a part of the empire. He spent more than half his reign outside Italy. Hadrian was not only a traveller but a man of real artistic sensibilities. He caused the building of the Pantheon but interestingly never allowed his name to be inscribed on any of the buildings for which he was responsible. The Grachii Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. It is from this date that the crisis of the Republic is usually dated. He believed that many of Rome's problems could be solved by the distribution to the landless mob of public land. Despite intense opposHis brother Gaius Gracchus was elected tribune in 123 BC. He instituted a huge programme of reforms. These included an agrarian law which built on the work of his brother. He also removed the rightof the senators to sit as jurors and replaced them with members of the equestrian order. He also tried but failed tGaius managed to obtain a second tribuante but the Senate rallied against him and he was defeated on his attempt to win a third term in 121 BC. When he tried to defend his laws in a show of force. The senate saw this as a threat and Gaius and some 300 of his supporters were captured and put to death. Germanicus Germanicus Iulius Caesar. 15 BC - 19 AD Son of Antonia he was adopted by Tiberius in AD 4. He was a popular figure and aparently able commander. However his judgement is considered suspect and his handling of the mutiny of the Rhine legions following the death of Augustus was not impressive. IHe was next sent by Tiberius to the East. While there he visited Egypt thereby offending Tiberius - the consent of the Emperor was required for any Senator to enter that country. On hs return to Syria he became embroiled in a feud with Piso. He forced Pi Marius Gaius Marius. 157 BC - 86 BC A remarkable man. A novus homo he became consul seven times. Having served with distinction in the army Marius achieved his first consulship in 107. By enrolling troops without regard to a property qualification he ended the army's manpower shortage but Fighting against Jugurtha with no great success he was lucky in that he was able to end the war through diplomacy. He celebrated a triumph in 104. His great victories were against the Cimbri and the Teutones in 102 and 101 when these tribes posed a serioDuring the 90's he lost ground politically. However he again distinguished himsel in the Social War at the end of that decade. He became a bitter rival of Sulla and in a struggle for command of the campaign against Mithridates he was driven form the city Senatus Consultum Ultimum This amounted to a declaration of a public emergency. A resolution was passed by the Senate enjoining the consuls 'to see to it that the State comes to no harm.' It was used against, for example, Catiline and Caesar. With less than total success in the Messalina Wife of Claudius and mother of his children, Octavia and Brittanicus. The sources are universally hostile to her and to some extent incredible. It is alleged that she competed with a leading prostitute of the day to see how many men each could service in The Roman calendar Until its reform by Julius Caesar in 46 BC the year was made up of 355 days divided into twelve months. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year an extra mont of 22 or 23 days was inserted. However the priests charged with this duty were incompetThe calendar introduced by Caesar is the one we still use today save that a slight error in the number of minutes in a year caused the calendar year and solar year to drift apart over the centuries leading to Pope Gregory introducing a slight adjustment The Social War This is the name of the war fought between Rome and her Italian allies between 91 - 88 BC. The cause of the war was the demand by the allies for rights of Roman citizenship. Although initially successful the allies were forced on the defensive. Rome brou Augustus Octavius 63 BC - AD 14 Caesar's will revealed that Octavius to be his adopted son and heir. At 18 it seemed impossible that he could succeed. Nonetheless he outmanouvered the Senate who had hoped to use him against Antony. In due course he turned against Antony and became undiIn 27 BC Octavian returned the State to the people. But it was a sham - he received back all the provinces with a military presence and through his auctoritas continued to rule. At his time he was voted the title 'Augustus'. Under Augustus the conquest of Spain was finally completed. His generals Tiberius and Drusus pushed the frontier of Illyria to the Danube and the Alpine tribes were conquered. Germany too was added to the empire but almost immediately lost in the disasteAugustus' greatest achievement was to retore Roman society after some 20 years opf civil war. The legnth of his reign allowed him to consolidate his revolution. Before Actium he was a ruthless revolutionary willing to murder his enemies if required. he c Corbulo Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo He was the greatest general of his time. his son in law conspired and Corbulo was forced to commit suicide by Nero. Perhaps he did not know the fate which awaited him when Nero invited him to Greece in AD 66. He might have usefully followed the example