PmUv/bs @ @i @09@iTable1ColA1 9ColB1ColA2ColB2 @ &aDLucius Domitus Aurelianus c. AD 215 - 275One of the soldier emperors of the third century he did as much as any man to revive Roman fortunes. he became emperor in AD 270. His first act was to repel barbarian invasions. He then turned his attention to Palmyra where Zenobia had tried to form an independent kingdom following the death of her husband who had acted in Rome's interests and had enjoyed de facto independence as a result. On his way to the East he repulsed more invasions and took the decision to withdraw from Dacia. After defeating Zenobia he turned back to the west but was recalled to crush a rebellion by the Palmyrenes. Palmyra was utterly destroyed. Once back in the West he ended the existence of the Gallic empire then ruled by Tetricus (early 274). Both Tetricus and Zenobia were displayed in Aurelian's triumph in Rome.Aurelian then moved against Persia but was murdered in a military plot apparently fostered by his secretary alarmed that some misdemeanors might be dicovered. under his rule the Roman empire was decisively reunited and went on the offensive after 40 years of disaster. He rightly claimed the title Restitutor Orbis. A31 BCAntony sought to invade Italy and gathered his fleet at the gulf of Ambracia. He was blockaded here by Octavian/Agrippa. Morale within his camp was collapsing with many high level desertions. Antony tried to break out to Egypt but was defeated. Cleopatra's squadron escaped through a gap that developed in the centre and Antony followed. The bulk of Antony's fleet was forced to surrender.BThe battle of Cannae in 216 BC was the worst military disaster in Roman history. The ancient sources suggest 80,000 Romans were killed. Modern writers assume something nearer 30,000. Hannibal's convesx crescent-shaped formation gave way under Roman presure but did not break. The Romans were enveloped on the flanks and ultimately surrounded when Hannibal's cavalry returned from their rout of their Roman counterparts.The Romans were commanded by L Aemilius Paullus and C. Terentius Varro. On their side were some 48,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry against 35,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry.In defeat the Romans remained utterly defiant. The Senate thanked Varro on his return for not despairing of the Republic. He was one of the few survivors.'C53BCAn essentially private expedition by Crassus against the Parthians ended in disaster at Carrhae. His expedition had no authority from Rome and the only motive seems to have been his desire for personal military glory to match that of Caesar and Pompey. Caesar's gallic war could be criticised as a private venture also but he at least was a commander of outstanding skill. Crassus was not. He was surrounded by the Parthians who engaged at long range with arrows. Eventually the retreat lost cohesion and just when escape seemed possible the Parthians took advantage of the confusion to lure Crassus to a negotiation where they killed him. Some 20,000 Romans were killed and 10,000 captured. About 10,000 managed to get away. Tiberius negotiated the release of the surviving captives many years later.C202 BC The Romans realised that the only way to end the war was to take it to Africa. Scipio (Africanus) was appointed to head the expedition following his successes in Spain. Scipio had been appointed consul for 205 and asked permission to mount the expedition. The Senate refused following advice form the now elderly Fabius Maximus (the delayer). However Scipio appealed over their heads to the people and the expedition was launched in 205 BC. He was successful in the initial campaign and the Carthaginians sued for peace while insuring themselves against failure by recalling Hannibal. His return stiffened the spirit of the war party in Carthage. The final battle at Zama was a complete victory for the Romans. With the infantry deadlocked the battle was decided by the return of Scipio's cavalry from their pursuit of the Carthaginian cavalry.The battle marked the end of the second Punic war._AMain events - all dates BCGaius Julius Caesar100 birth of Caesar84 married Cornelia daughter of Cinna73 elected Pontifex69 elected quaestor63 elected pontifex maximus59 consul58 - 51 gallic war49 - 45 civil war48 elected dictator and consul46 dictator for life46 and 45 nine month consulates44 consul again44 ides of March - assasinatedBGaius Julius Caesar Germanicus AD12 - 41Son of Germanicus and Agrippina he was nicknamed Caligula (baby boots) by the soldiers. Tiberius seems to have appointed him successor though in language typically obscure. At all events he became empeor in March 37. In October of that year he became seriously ill and this may have affected his mind.It is not clear whether he was really unhinged or whether his hellenistic concept of monarchy was simply unacceptable to the Roman nobility. He was an ineffective and cruel ruler, far more autocratic than his predecesors He accepted extravagant honours which came close to deification. He was murdered at the Palace in January of 41. His fourth wife Caesonia and his only child ( a daughter) were murdered also.CMarcus Porcius Cato 95 - 46 BCGreat grandson of Cato the Elder. An utterly uncompromising defender of the Senatorial regime and therefore diehard enemy of Caesar. Although never rising above praetor he nonetheless exerted enormous authority.Caesar despised him and was often defeated by him. It was Cato's intervention that ensured that the Senate voted to execute the Catilinarian conspirators after Caesar's speech seemed to have settled the matter in favour of imprisonment. Again it was Cato who ensured that no compromise was made with Caesar which might have averted the civil wars. After the defeat of the Pompeians in Africa in 46 BC he committed suicide. Indeath he was an even greater enemy to Caesar. Cicero wrote a famous pamphlet in favour of Cato. Caesar's reply, the Anticato, was pitched too high and left Cato's fame enhanced. This was more than this unpleasant example of diehard Republicanism really deserved.DMarcus Tullius Cicero 106-43BC.Cicero was a self made man - a novus homo. He was born in Arpinum some 70 miles from Rome. He was the greatest advocate of his day in a society which valued such skills highly. His consulship (63BC) was notable for the suppression of the Cataline conspiracy. He had the conspirators executed - for which act he was in due course exiled for a while. He opposed Caesar and supported Pompey as a counterweight. By the start of the civil wars he had become disillusioned but stayed loyal. Delighted by Caesar's death he opposed Antony and his Philippics contain some of the bitterest invective written. He tried to use Octavian against Antony but was cast aside, Octavian consenting to Antony placing his name on the infamous list of the proscribed. He was killed trying to escape by sea.Many of his letters survive (some 900) and we have political speeches and philosophical works also. Together these provide a unique insight into the late Republic.A vain man he was nonetheless hugely talented. As an outsider he lacked power and was swept aside by events. He might have done more to prevent the civil wars but his position was probably too weak to intervene decisively.{ETiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus 10BC - AD 54Claudius suffered from some sort of paralysis. His family (esp Livia) feared his disability might also be mental and he was not permitted to take up a public role. This makes his accession in 37 AD on the murder of Caligula all the more surprising. He was chosen by the Praetorians not the Senate (they were hoping to restore the Republic).He nonetheless proved a competent emperor though his private life was never other than shambolic. His wife Messalina was notoriously unfaithful and eventually conspired against him with one of her lovers. His freedmen could tolerate infidelity but not this - she was put to death before he could forgive her. He then married Agrippina who was commonly held to have had him murdered with a mushroom broth when he gave signs of favouring his son Britannicus over her own - Nero.Despite the contempt in which he was held by his contemporaries he undertook or completed many worthwhile engineering projects (acqueducts, a new harbour at Ostia etc) and generally Rome seems to have been well governed. He was a keen scholar of history but none of his works remain. This is a pity as it would have enabled us to judge better whether he was the idiot of repute or the intelligent man presented by Robert Graves. That said it is perhaps suspicious that no works by an emperor historian remain - were they destroyed? Why?CTitus Flavianus Domitianus AD 51 - 96Emperor from 81. He was a competent administrator and although more of an absolute monarch than his predecessors not bllodthirsty at first. In 88 Saturinus rebelled and therafter Domitian became more and more ruthless. By the end his rule had become a reign of terror. His fear of conspiracies became itself a cause of them.He despised the Senate and they in turn hated him. After his reign they caused his name to be expunged from public monuments. He was severe in the sphere of public moraity. In 90 the chief vestal virgin, Cornelia, was buried alive for having sexual intercourse. Domitian himself led a notoriously sensual private life - a contrast not lost on his enemies.In foreign policy he sems to have followed a sensible course in strenghthening existing frontiers. His work in stabilising the German frontier was successful but misrepresented at the time. He was murdered in a palace plot in 96 AD and was the last of the Flavian dynasty. He was succeeded by Nerva.BThe names that come to mind are Robert Graves and Allan Massie. Graves' Claudius books are simply superb. I suspect they have started many people's interest in Roman history. Massie is ok but his narrative drive is less impressive and his heros are hard to identify with (it is not clear he has any).Less well known is Mario de Carvalho. He is a portuguese writer whos book A God Strolling in the Cool of the Evening has been translated into English. This is an excellent book. It is exciting but the thing that impresses most is the effort he makes to get inside the mind of the characters as they would have been.Contrast this with Lindsay Davies' Falco series which simply gives us 90's political correctness in a toga. SCServius Sculpius Galba 3 BC - AD 69Highly esteemed by Augustus and Tiberius he was also a favourite of Livia, Caligula and Claudius. Governor of Acquitania and consul in 43. Consul again in 60.He marched on Rome at Vindex's invitation and was installed as emperor following Nero's death in 68. Galba was probably too old and inflexible to succeed. He foolishly alienated the praetorians and a legion enrolled by Nero from the fleet by refusing a promised donative 'I choose my soldiers,I do not buy them'. His arrival was therefore bloodily contested and the opposition bloodily suppressed.The legions in Germany rebelled and Galba recruited a younger man to govern alongside him (one Piso). Otho had expected to be chosen and in desperation launched a coup which ended in the murder first of Piso then of Galba. Otho became emperor in his place.ABuilt on the orders of Hadrian between AD 122 - 6. It was 80 Roman miles in length and some 15 feet high excluding battlements. Behind the wall enclosing all but one of the forts lies the Vallum, a ditch 20 feet wide and 8 feet deep.The wall was overrun on the defeat of Albinus in 196-7 and was restored by Severus in 205-7. The wall was again overrun in 367, restored by Count Theodosius in 369 and finally abandoned c. 400 when the fontier became the responsibility of the allied Lowland kingdoms.AFounding of the city 753 BCStart of the Republic 509 BCTribunate created 494Twelve tables codified 449Rome sacked by Celts 390First Punic war 264 - 241Second Punic war 218 - 202Third Punic war 149 - 146Reforms of the Grachii 133 - 122Rise of Marius/army reforms 112- 98Rise of Sulla and his dictatorship 91 - 79Caesars consulship 60Alesia 52Munda 45Death of Caesar 44Actium 31Restoration of the Republic 272ATitus Livius 59BC - AD 17Livy was a provincial and one of the greatest of all the Roman historians. Born in Padua he retained his accent but spent most of his life at Rome. His great work was the History of Rome covering the period from the founding of the City to 9 BC. Of the 142 books just 35 survive.YA$4460"$4 $$"0&AurelianBattle of ActiumBattle of CannaeBattle of Carrhae'Battle of Zama Caesar _Caligula Cato the Younger Cicero Claudius{DomitianFictionGalbaSHadrian's Wall Key datesLivy2DNero Claudius Caesar AD 37 - 68Nero became emperor in AD 54 succeeding Claudius whose death (so many believed) had been brought about by Agrippina Nero's mother.Agrippina no doubt thought she could control her son but he soon became his own master. In 59 he had Agrippina murdered in a farcical affair which involved a collapsing boat. Agrippina survived the shipwreck and was clubbed to death by a soldier.By 62 Burrus was dead and Seneca had retired leaving Nero free to concentrate on his passions in life - charioteering and music. There is no evidence that Nero understood what it meant to govern and his arrogance, vanity and cruelty made him deply unpopular. his decision to use a fire which destroyed about one half of Rome as an opportunity to build the Golden House increased his unpopularity.A failed conspiracy led to executions including the forced suicide of the great general Corbulo.In the end a half hearted revolt was allowed to get out of control and Nero was frced to flee having lost all control of the situation. He was quickly hunted down and committed suicide. His last words are supposed to be 'What an artist dies with me'.BMarcus Salvius Otho AD 32 - 69Emperor for a mere 3 months. Otho was governor of Lusitania. He supported Galbaand hoped to be his heir. Disappointed and hopelessly in debt he conspired against Galba and murdered him and his close associates. A few months later he committed suicide. His forces were heavily defeated by the Vitellians. Still a more determined man might have won through - although defeated his forces were not broken and he could have held out until the arrival of reinforcements from the Danube legions. His suicide suggests a lack of resolution wholly inappropriate for a mand prepared to murder his way to the principate.BGaius Plinius Secundus AD23 - 79Born at Novum Comum in northern Italy, he was an outstanding example of a successful member of the equestrian order. He began his career in the army in Germany and held a number of procuratorships in Gaul, Spain and Africa. On his return to Rome he devoted his life to writing. Seven works are known but only his encyclopaedia, the Natural History, survives. It is a wonderful insight into scientific knowledge of the time as well as telling much of the author's character.While in charghe of the Roman fleet at Misenum he died in the eruption of Vesuvius. Ironically this was a result of his scientific curiosity which led him to sail to the site to observe the eruption at first hand.@ c.200 BC - after 118Polybius was a Greek historian whose work covered the period from 264 to 146 BC. His task was to explain how Rome came to be the dominant power in the mediterranean.He was born in Megalopolis in Arcadia then part of the Achaean League. He was one of the 1,000 Achaeans detained without trial in Italy following their denouncement by Callicrates, a pro Roman politician.Luckily for him he was taken up by Scipio Amelianus and travelled with him to Spain and to Africa. After the Achaeans were released in 150 he returned to Greece but at Scipio's invitation he attended the siege of Carthage in the third Punic war.Polybius explains how he thinks history should be written. He believes the two most important elements are familiarity with the ground (eg harbours, mountains etc) and personal experience of political/military life. History cannot be written successfully purely from a library.His great work was his Universal History of which only a fraction survives intact but of which a good deal suvives through excerpts prepared by later historians.PIGnaeus Pompeius 106 - 48 BCPompey sided with Sulla in the civil wars of the 80's and it was Sulla who gavi him his title 'Magnus'.Perhaps his greatest moment was his campaign against the pirates who had become a serious menace. The Lex Gabinia gave him command of huge forces and his powers of organisation saw a task that many saw as impossible completed in just three months. After this he obtained command of the war in the East replacing Lucullus who had aready done much of the ground work and who bitterly resented Pompey's actions. Again successful he returned with his army. People were put in mind of Marius and feared what he might do. In fact he disbanded his army to the relief of the Senate. However they then refused to grant him his requests (esp land for his veterans) and Caesar used the opportunity to form an alliance with him. With Crassus they togiether formed the First Triumverate. Caesar was elected consul and saw to it that Pompey's veterans got their land. The first triumverate dominated the State and led to the the triumvirs incurring great unpopularity. In the end Pompey was dislodged from his alliance with Caesar and sided with the Optimates. Forced to flee from Italy at the outbreak of the civil war he set about raising and training a force in Greece and prepared to gather his strength from his many clients and allies in the East. Caesar did not wait for him crossing over to Greece in 48. Pompey had some initial successes but his army was of far inferior quality to Caesar's veterans. Pompey was not master in his own house as Caesar was. Against his better judgement he gave battle at Pharsalus. Although numerically superior he was defeated and fled to Egypt where he was murdered.Although determined to behave constitutionally Pompey must take much of the blame for the civil war. He was the one person who had it in his power to prevent it and failed to do so. Perhaps he could not bear the thought of being eclipsed by Caesar who was clearly going to outshine him.Main dates106 born80 awarded a triumph for his services in the war against Marius 71 assisted Crassus in the war against Spartacus67 the war against the pirates66-62 the war agains Mithradates59 married Julia (Caesar's daughter)57 awarded command of the corn supply55 consul with Crassus54 death of Julia52 sole consul49 forced to evacuate Italy48 PharsalusmDThe SenateConsuls - the two annually elected chief magistrates.Dictator - in times of crisis one man would hold supreme power for a fixed term (usually 6 months).Tribunes of the people - created to protect the plebs against arbitary arrest etc they were immune form prosecution and could veto decisions of the Senate and the consuls save in times of war.Censors - started in the fourth century BC the two censors had the task of maintaining the lists of the citizenry (eg ensuring only the correct people were classed as equites and so on)Aediles - originally a plebian office from 367 BC of both orders. They had wide responsibilities including public order, water supplies, street maintenace etc.Quaestors - a junior magistracy but one which normally carried entry to the Senate at the end of its term. Sulla enacted that there should be 20 quaestors each year.Praetor - this name was used to instead of consul in the early years of the Republic. Later the urban praetors were responsible for administration of justice within Rome. Gradually diminished in importance but carried the expectation of a governership on expiry.CGaius Cornelius Tacitus c. AD 56 - c.118Normally regarded as the greatest of the Latin historians his work comprises The Agricola, The Germania and the Dialogue on Dictators all of which survive in full and (his great works) the Annals (about half survives) and the Histories (about a third survives).While his theme was to disparage the emperors from Augustus onwards (he is particularly unfair on Tiberius) he seems to have been accurate in his facts. He dismisses obvious lies or absurdities even where they might help his case. It is in interpreting the facts and in ascribing motives that he attacks the imperial dynasties. Despite his pessimistic view of Roman society he nontheless balances this with stories of individual heroism. It is not clear he really understood military matters. One writer remarked that it is impossible to understand any battle from one of his descriptions. That said the sheer power and drama of his writing are utterly gripping.$AThe largest arena in Rome it was a building for spectacles from the time of the Kings. The Circus was periodically repaired and improved. It measured 600x200m and had a capacity of some 320,000. The cicus was used for chariot racing of which the most important were those of the Ludi Romani.&CAfter his return from Egypt Caesar moved quickly to Africa ariving there at the end of 47. There he defeated the Pompeian forces at Thapsus. Cato who had been left in charge of the garrison at Utica committed suicide thus eluding Caesar's mercy which would have been unbearable to the man.After summer in Rome Caesar moved to Spain where by rights he should have been defeated at the battle of Munda (45 BC). His opponent was Labienus his old number two from Gaul. Labienus' skillful manouvering drew Caesar into accepting battle on unfavourable terrain. Luck in the form of a confusion which led to panic in part of the Pompeian army favoured Caesar and he won the battle decisively. Of the battle he remarked that he had often fought for victory but this was the first time he had fought for his life.CUnwilling to return to Rome except as Consul (and thus legally protected) Caesar launched a lightening offensive in the spring of 49 BC. Given his readiness and their unreadiness it is odd that his opponents were willing to force him to make this choice. In a matter of weeks Caesar conquered Italy and Pompey only just escaped with his army to Greece. After securing his rear by defeating the Pompeian armies in Spain Caesar followed with half his army (transports were insufficient) and the rest followed with Antony after an agonising delay. Caesar attempted to blockade Pompey with circumvallations but a defeat forced him to withdraw. Pompey enjoyed a far superior position strategically but was not master of his own house. He gave battle at Pharsalus (48 BC) and was decisively beaten by the smaller but far more experienced Caesarians. Pompey escaped to Egypt where he was murdered by Ptolemy.BAfter following Pompey to Egypt (48 BC) Caesar allowed himself to become embroiled in events there. He took it upon himself to settle the dynastic dispute between Ptolemy and Cleopatra in favour of the latter. Ptolemy's ministers set the royal army on Caesar and he only extricated himself with difficulty. After defeating Ptolemy Caesar is suposed to have spent two months sailing on the Nile with Cleopatra who had become his mistress.In 47 Caesar returned to Rome defeating on his way Pharnaces in a lightning campaign. Despite the speed of the campaign the battle of Zela was nonetheless hard fought. It was of the campaign that Caesar made his famous boast 'Veni Vidi Vici' which in the circumstances was unfair to the courage of Pharnaces' soldiers.;BBegun by Vespasian and completed under Titus in AD 80. It was originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre. The name Colosseum began to be used in the middle ages and comes from a giant statue of Nero nearby. The stadium held some 50,000 spectators.It remained in use for hundreds of years being periodically repaired. It was used for the last time around AD 523.Whether Christians were ever martyred there is unclear. Gladiatorial contests were ended in AD 397, renewed under Valentius III and finally ended from AD 438. After this only wild beast hunts were permitted.DThe Gallic war was launched in 58 BC so far as we can tell without any authority from the Senate. The motive of the war seems to have been entirely to allow Caesar to obtain money and prestige. It was a spectacular success. The war began with Caesar preventing the migration of the Helvetii. He then destroyed the army of the German prince Ariovistus who Caesar believed would otherwise have dominaed the Gauls. In the next five years Caesar conquered the whole of Gaul even finding time for two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54.In 52 Caesar faced a serious crisis when the Gauls under Vercingetorix rose in rebellion. Caesar was defeated at Gergovia and forced to withdraw from his siege of that town. However Vercingetorix was repulsed and retired to Alesia. Here Caesar completed a massive double circumvallation. When the massive relieving army arrived Caesar's fortifications held out and that army dispersed. Vercingetorix remained trapped inside and was forced to surrender. Caesar had him strangled at his triumph six years later.There were further outbreaks but Alesia marked the end of serious resistance. It is notable that no revolts were attempted during the civil wars of the 40's and 30's.hAThe first building was erected in 27 BC by Agrippa. It was completely rebuit by Hadrian who inscribed Agrippa's name on the frieze of the porch.Behind the porch lies a cylindrical temple with a dome. The height of the dome (43.3m) is precisely that of the diameter so the internal space is a perfect sphere. It is the largest dome ever covered with masonry.B$2$4B$!8frt.N,NeroOthoPliny the ElderPolybius7Pompey the GreatP Republican institutionsmTacitus  The 7 Hillsd}hjlr.wxB}U9#ߺ IJh @"DATA.APPd@Table1"Subject: 9 dNotes:d@<.=B>>&x1к GCv"u&N),.D0e2X79<@;JNuRSVLZD]_>d}hjlr.wxB}U9#ߺ IJh