OPLDatabaseFile 0P:`.AB#6' 55 pLOC::M:\WDR\PSIPRINT.WDR Page %P@Subject:Notes:AugustusOctavius 63 BC - AD 14Caesar's will revealed that Octavius to be his adopted son and heir. At 18 it seemed impossible that he could succeed. Nonetheless he outmanouvered the Senate who had hoped to use him against Antony. In due course he turned against Antony and became undisEputed master of the Roman world after the battle of Actium in 31 BC.In 27 BC Octavian returned the State to the people. But it was a sham - he received back all the provinces with a military presence and through his auctoritas continued to rule. At his time he was voted the title 'Augustus'.Under Augustus the conquest of Spain was finally completed. His generals Tiberius and Drusus pushed the frontier of Illyria to the Danube and the Alpine tribes were conquered. Germany too was added to the empire but almost immediately lost in the disaster6 which saw Varus with three legions destroyed in AD9.Augustus' greatest achievement was to retore Roman society after some 20 years opf civil war. The legnth of his reign allowed him to consolidate his revolution. Before Actium he was a ruthless revolutionary willing to murder his enemies if required. he consented to the murder of Antony in the imfamous proscriptions. After Actium he set about consolidating his power and rebuilding a society on its knees. His enormous skill as a politician enabled him to find a solution that escaped Caesar. The result was 9the Principate - neither outright monarchy nor Republic.Aurelian)Lucius Domitus Aurelianus c. AD 215 - 275One of the soldier emperors of the third century he did as much as any man to revive Roman fortunes. he became emperor in AD 270. His first act was to repel barbarian invasions. He then turned his attention to Palmyra where Zenobia had tried to form an independent kingdom following the death of her husband who had acted in Rome's interests and had enjoyed de facto independence as a result. On his way to the East he repulsed more invasions and took the decision to withdraw from Dacia. After defeating Zenobia he turned back to the west but was recalled to crush a rebellion by the Palmyrenes. Palmyra was utterly destroyed. Once back in the West he ended the existence of the Gallic empire then ruled by Tetricus (early 274). Both Tetricus and Zenobia were di'splayed in Aurelian's triumph in Rome.Aurelian then moved against Persia but was murdered in a military plot apparently fostered by his secretary alarmed that some misdemeanors might be dicovered. under his rule the Roman empire was decisively reunited and went on the offensive after 40 years> of disaster. He rightly claimed the title Restitutor Orbis. Aurelian)Lucius Domitus Aurelianus c. AD 215 - 275One of the soldier emperors of the third century he did as much as any man to revive Roman fortunes. he became emperor in AD 270. His first act was to repel barbarian invasions. He then turned his attention to Palmyra where Zenobia had tried to form an independent kingdom following the death of her husband who had acted in Rome's interests and had enjoyed de facto independence as a result. On his way to the East he repulsed more invasions and took the decision to withdraw from Dacia. After defeating Zenobia he turned back to the west but was recalled to crush a rebellion by the Palmyrenes. Palmyra was utterly destroyed. Once back in the West he ended the existence of the Gallic empire then ruled by Tetricus (early 274). Both Tetricus and Zenobia were di'splayed in Aurelian's triumph in Rome.Aurelian then moved against Persia but was murdered in a military plot apparently fostered by his secretary alarmed that some misdemeanors might be dicovered. under his rule the Roman empire was decisively reunited and went on the offensive after 40 years> of disaster. He rightly claimed the title Restitutor Orbis. Battle of Actium31 BCAntony sought to invade Italy and gathered his fleet at the gulf of Ambracia. He was blockaded here by Octavian/Agrippa. Morale within his camp was collapsing with many high level desertions. Antony tried to break out to Egypt but was defeated. Cleopatra's squadron escaped through a gap that developed in the centre and Antony followed. The bulk of Antony's fleet was forced to surrender.Battle of CannaeThe battle of Cannae in 216 BC was the worst military disaster in Roman history. The ancient sources suggest 80,000 Romans were killed. Modern writers assume something nearer 30,000. Hannibal's convesx crescent-shaped formation gave way under Roman presure but did not break. The Romans were enveloped on the flanks and ultimately surrounded when Hannibal's cavalry returned from their rout of their Roman counterparts.The Romans were commanded by L Aemilius Paullus and C. Terentius Varro. On their side were some 48,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry against 35,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry.In defeat the Romans remained utterly defiant. The Senate thanked Varro on his return for not despairing of the Republic. He was one of the few survivors.@Battle of Carrhae53BCAn essentially private expedition by Crassus against the Parthians ended in disaster at Carrhae. His expedition had no authority from Rome and the only motive seems to have been his desire for personal military glory to match that of Caesar and Pompey. Caesar's gallic war could be criticised as a private venture also but he at least was a commander of outstanding skill. Crassus was not. He was surrounded by the Parthians who engaged at long range with arrows. Eventually the retreat lost cohesion and just when escape seemed possible the Parthians took advantage of the confusion to lure Crassus to a negotiation where they killed him. Some 20,000 Romans were killed and 10,000 captured. About 10,000 managed to get away. Tiberius negotiated the release of th'e surviving captives many years later.Battle of Zama202 BC The Romans realised that the only way to end the war was to take it to Africa. Scipio (Africanus) was appointed to head the expedition following his successes in Spain. Scipio had been appointed consul for 205 and asked permission to mount the expedition. The Senate refused following advice form the now elderly Fabius Maximus (the delayer). However Scipio appealed over their heads to the people and the expedition was launched in 205 BC. He was successful in the initial campaign and the Carthaginians sued for peace while insuring themselves against failure by recalling Hannibal. His return stiffened the spirit of the war party in Carthage. The final battle at Zama was a complete victory for the Romans. With the infantry deadlocked the battle was dYecided by the return of Scipio's cavalry from their pursuit of the Carthaginian cavalry.2The battle marked the end of the second Punic war.jCaesar Main events - all dates BCGaius Julius Caesar100 birth of Caesar%84 married Cornelia daughter of Cinna73 elected Pontifex69 elected quaestor63 elected pontifex maximus 59 consul58 - 51 gallic war49 - 45 civil war48 elected dictator and consul46 dictator for life46 and 45 nine month consulates44 consul again44 ides of March - assasinatedCaligula(Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus AD12 - 41Son of Germanicus and Agrippina he was nicknamed Caligula (baby boots) by the soldiers. Tiberius seems to have appointed him successor though in language typically obscure. At all events he became empeor in March 37. In October of that year he became seri/ously ill and this may have affected his mind.It is not clear whether he was really unhinged or whether his hellenistic concept of monarchy was simply unacceptable to the Roman nobility. He was an ineffective and cruel ruler, far more autocratic than his predecesors He accepted extravagant honours which came close to deification. He was murdered at the Palace in January of 41. His fourth wife Caesonia and his only child ( a daughter) were murdered also.Cato the YoungerMarcus Porcius Cato 95 - 46 BCGreat grandson of Cato the Elder. An utterly uncompromising defender of the Senatorial regime and therefore diehard enemy of Caesar. Although never rising above praetor he nonetheless exerted enormous authority.Caesar despised him and was often defeated by him. It was Cato's intervention that ensured that the Senate voted to execute the Catilinarian conspirators after Caesar's speech seemed to have settled the matter in favour of imprisonment. Again it was Cato ^who ensured that no compromise was made with Caesar which might have averted the civil wars. After the defeat of the Pompeians in Africa in 46 BC he committed suicide. Indeath he was an even greater enemy to Caesar. Cicero wrote a famous pamphlet in favour of Cato. Caesar's reply, the Anticato, was pitched too high and left Cato's fame enhanced. UThis was more than this unpleasant example of diehard Republicanism really deserved.CiceroMarcus Tullius Cicero 106-43BC.Cicero was a self made man - a novus homo. He was born in Arpinum some 70 miles from Rome. He was the greatest advocate of his day in a society which valued such skills highly. His consulship (63BC) was notable for the suppression of the Cataline conspiracy. He had the conspirators executed - for which act he was in due course exiled for a while. He opposed Caesar and supported Pompey as a counterweight. By the start of the civil wars he had become disillusioned but stayed loyal. Delighted by Caesar's death he opposed Antony and his Philippics contain some of the bitterest invective written. He tried to use Octavian against Antony but was cast aside, Octavian consenting to Antony placing his name on the infamous list of the proscribed. He was killed trying to escape by sea.Many of his letters survive (some 900) and we have political speeches and philosophical works also. Together these provide a unique insight into the late Republic.A vain man he was nonetheless hugely talented. As an outsider he lacked power and was swept aside by events. He might have done more to prevent the civil wars but his position was probably too weak to intervene decisively.Claudius.Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus 10BC - AD 54Claudius suffered from some sort of paralysis. His family (esp Livia) feared his disability might also be mental and he was not permitted to take up a public role. This makes his accession in 37 AD on the murder of Caligula all the more surprising. He wasV chosen by the Praetorians not the Senate (they were hoping to restore the Republic).He nonetheless proved a competent emperor though his private life was never other than shambolic. His wife Messalina was notoriously unfaithful and eventually conspired against him with one of her lovers. His freedmen could tolerate infidelity but not this - she was put to death before he could forgive her. He then married Agrippina who was commonly held to have had him murdered with a mushroom broth when he gave signs of favouring his son Britannicus over her own - Nero.Despite the contempt in which he was held by his contemporaries he undertook or completed many worthwhile engineering projects (acqueducts, a new harbour at Ostia etc) and generally Rome seems to have been well governed. He was a keen scholar of history but none of his works remain. This is a pity as it would have enabled us to judge better whether he was the idiot of repute or the intelligent man presented by Robert Graves. That said it is perhaps suspicious that no work=s by an emperor historian remain - were they destroyed? Why? Domitian%Titus Flavianus Domitianus AD 51 - 96Emperor from 81. He was a competent administrator and although more of an absolute monarch than his predecessors not bllodthirsty at first. In 88 Saturinus rebelled and therafter Domitian became more and more ruthless. By the end his rule had become a reGign of terror. His fear of conspiracies became itself a cause of them.He despised the Senate and they in turn hated him. After his reign they caused his name to be expunged from public monuments. He was severe in the sphere of public moraity. In 90 the chief vestal virgin, Cornelia, was buried alive for having sexual interceourse. Domitian himself led a notoriously sensual private life - a contrast not lost on his enemies.In foreign policy he sems to have followed a sensible course in strenghthening existing frontiers. His work in stabilising the German frontier was successful but misrepresented at the time. mHe was murdered in a palace plot in 96 AD and was the last of the Flavian dynasty. He was succeeded by Nerva.FictionThe names that come to mind are Robert Graves and Allan Massie. Graves' Claudius books are simply superb. I suspect they have started many people's interest in Roman history. Massie is ok but his narrative drive is less impressive and his heros are hard /to identify with (it is not clear he has any).Less well known is Mario de Carvalho. He is a portuguese writer whos book A God Strolling in the Cool of the Evening has been translated into English. This is an excellent book. It is exciting but the thing that impresses most is the effort he makes to ge=t inside the mind of the characters as they would have been.lContrast this with Lindsay Davies' Falco series which simply gives us 90's political correctness in a toga. ^Galba#Servius Sculpius Galba 3 BC - AD 69Highly esteemed by Augustus and Tiberius he was also a favourite of Livia, Caligula and Claudius. Governor of Acquitania and consul in 43. Consul again in 60.He marched on Rome at Vindex's invitation and was installed as emperor following Nero's death in 68. Galba was probably too old and inflexible to succeed. He foolishly alienated the praetorians and a legion enrolled by Nero from the fleet by refusing a promised donative 'I choose my soldiers,I do not buy them'. His arrival was therefore bloodily contested and the opposition bloodily suppressed.The legions in Germany rebelled and Galba recruited a younger man to govern alongside him (one Piso). Otho had expected to be chosen and in desperation launched a coup which ended in the murder first of Piso then of Galba. Otho became emperor in his place.Hadrian's WallBuilt on the orders of Hadrian between AD 122 - 6. It was 80 Roman miles in length and some 15 feet high excluding battlements. Behind the wall enclosing all but one of the forts lies the Vallum, a ditch 20 feet wide and 8 feet deep.The wall was overrun on the defeat of Albinus in 196-7 and was restored by Severus in 205-7. The wall was again overrun in 367, restored by Count Theodosius in 369 and finally abandoned c. 400 when the fontier became the responsibility of the allied Lowla nd kingdoms. Key datesFounding of the city 753 BCStart of the Republic 509 BCTribunate created 494Twelve tables codified 449Rome sacked by Celts 390First Punic war 264 - 241Second Punic war 218 - 202Third Punic war 149 - 146 Reforms of the Grachii 133 - 122#Rise of Marius/army reforms 112- 98*Rise of Sulla and his dictatorship 91 - 79Caesars consulship 60 Alesia 52Munda 45Death of Caesar 44 Actium 31Restoration of the Republic 27;LivyTitus Livius 59BC - AD 17Livy was a provincial and one of the greatest of all the Roman historians. Born in Padua he retained his accent but spent most of his life at Rome. His great work was the History of Rome covering the period from the founding of the City to 9 BC. Of the 142 books just 35 survive.NeroNero Claudius Caesar AD 37 - 68Nero became emperor in AD 54 succeeding Claudius whose death (so many believed) had been brought about by Agrippina Nero's mother.Agrippina no doubt thought she could control her son but he soon became his own master. In 59 he had Agrippina murdered in a farcical affair which involved a collapsing boat. Agrippina survived the shipwreck and was clubbed to death by a soldier.By 62 Burrus was dead and Seneca had retired leaving Nero free to concentrate on his passions in life - charioteering and music. There is no evidence that Nero understood what it meant to govern and his arrogance, vanity and cruelty made him deply unpopular. his decision to use a fire which destroyed about one half of Rome as an opportunity to build the Golden House increased his unpopularity.`A failed conspiracy led to executions including the forced suicide of the great general Corbulo.In the end a half hearted revolt was allowed to get out of control and Nero was frced to flee having lost all control of the situation. He was quickly hunted down and committed suicide. His last words are supposed to be 'What an artist dies with me'.OthoMarcus Salvius Otho AD 32 - 69OEmperor for a mere 3 months. Otho was governor of Lusitania. He supported Galbaand hoped to be his heir. Disappointed and hopelessly in debt he conspired against Galba and murdered him and his close associates. A few months later he committed suicide. His forces were heavily defeated by the Vitellians. Still a more determined man might have won through - although defeated his forces were not broken and he could have held out until the arrival of reinforcements from the Danube legions. His suicide suggests a lack of resolution wholly inappropriate for a mand prepared to murder his way to the principate.Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus AD23 - 79Born at Novum Comum in northern Italy, he was an outstanding example of a successful member of the equestrian order. He began his career in the army in Germany and held a number of procuratorships in Gaul, Spain and Africa. On his return to Rome he devoted his life to writing. Seven works are known but only his encyclopaedia, the Natural History, survives. It is a wonderful insight into scientific knowledge of the time as well as telling much of the author's character.While in charghe of the Roman fleet at Misenum he died in the eruption of Vesuvius. Ironically this was a result of his scientific curiosity which led him to sail to the site to observe the eruption at first hand.CPolybius c.200 BC - after 118Polybius was a Greek historian whose work covered the period from 264 to 146 BC. His task was to explain how Rome came to be the dominant power in the mediterranean.He was born in Megalopolis in Arcadia then part of the Achaean League. He was one of the 1,000 Achaeans detained without trial in Italy following their denouncement by Callicrates, a pro Roman politician.Luckily for him he was taken up by Scipio Amelianus and travelled with him to Spain and to Africa. After the Achaeans were released in 150 he returned to Greece but at Scipio's invitation he attended the siege of Carthage in the third Punic war.Polybius explains how he thinks history should be written. He believes the two most important elements are familiarity with the ground (eg harbours, mountains etc) and personal experience of political/military life. History cannot be written successfully purely from a library.His great work was his Universal History of which only a fraction survives intact but of which a good deal suvives through excerpts prepared by later historians.pPompey the GreatGnaeus Pompeius 106 - 48 BCgPompey sided with Sulla in the civil wars of the 80's and it was Sulla who gavi him his title 'Magnus'.Perhaps his greatest moment was his campaign against the pirates who had become a serious menace. The Lex Gabinia gave him command of huge forces and his powers of organisation saw a task that many saw as impossible completed in just three months. After this he obtained command of the war in the East replacing Lucullus who had aready done much of the ground work and who bitterly resented Pompey's actions. Again successful he returned with his army. People were put in mind of Marius and feared what he might do. In fact he disbanded his army to the relief of the Senate. However they then refused to grant him his requests (esp land for his veterans) and Caesar used the opportunity to form an alliance with him. With Crassus they togiether formed the First Triumverate. Caesar was elected consul and saw to it that Pompey's veterans got their land. The first triumverate dominated the State and led to the the triumvirs incurring great unpopularity. In the end Pompey was dislodged from his alliance with Caesar and sided with the Optimates. Forced to flee from Italy at the outbreak of the civil war he set about raising and training a force in Greece and prepared to gather his strength from his many clients and allies in the East. Caesar did not wait for him crossing over to Greece in 48. Pompey had some initial successes but his army was of far inferior quality to Caesar's veterans. Pompey was not master in his own house as Caesar was. Against his better judgement he gave battle at Pharsalus. Although numericaFlly superior he was defeated and fled to Egypt where he was murdered.Although determined to behave constitutionally Pompey must take much of the blame for the civil war. He was the one person who had it in his power to prevent it and failed to do so. Perhaps he could not bear the thought of being eclipsed by Caesar who was  clearly going to outshine him. Main dates106 born@80 awarded a triumph for his services in the war against Marius 071 assisted Crassus in the war against Spartacus67 the war against the pirates 66-62 the war agains Mithradates$59 married Julia (Caesar's daughter)%57 awarded command of the corn supply55 consul with Crassus54 death of Julia52 sole consul49 forced to evacuate Italy 48 PharsalusRepublican institutions The Senate5Consuls - the two annually elected chief magistrates.cDictator - in times of crisis one man would hold supreme power for a fixed term (usually 6 months).Tribunes of the people - created to protect the plebs against arbitary arrest etc they were immune form prosecution and could veto decisions of the Senate and the consuls save in times of war.Censors - started in the fourth century BC the two censors had the task of maintaining the lists of the citizenry (eg ensuring only the correct people were classed as equites and so on)Aediles - originally a plebian office from 367 BC of both orders. They had wide responsibilities including public order, water supplies, street maintenace etc.Quaestors - a junior magistracy but one which normally carried entry to the Senate at the end of its term. Sulla enacted that there should be 20 quaestors each year.Praetor - this name was used to instead of consul in the early years of the Republic. Later the urban praetors were responsible for administration of justice within Rome. Gradually diminished in importance but carried the expectation of a governership on expiry.Tacitus (Gaius Cornelius Tacitus c. AD 56 - c.118Normally regarded as the greatest of the Latin historians his work comprises The Agricola, The Germania and the Dialogue on Dictators all of which survive in full and (his great works) the Annals (about half survives) and the Histories (about a third survives).While his theme was to disparage the emperors from Augustus onwards (he is particularly unfair on Tiberius) he seems to have been accurate in his facts. He dismisses obvious lies or absurdities even where they might help his case. It is in interpreting thKe facts and in ascribing motives that he attacks the imperial dynasties. Despite his pessimistic view of Roman society he nontheless balances this with stories of individual heroism. It is not clear he really understood military matters. One writer remarked that it is impossible to understand any battle from one of his descripPtions. That said the sheer power and drama of his writing are utterly gripping.J The 7 HillsPalatineQuirnalViminal EsquilineCapitolAventineCaeline The 7 KingsRomulus 753-715 BCNuma Pompilius 715 - 613Tullus Hostilius 673 - 641Ancus Marcius 641 - 616L. Tarquinius Priscus 616 - 579Servius Tullius 579 - 534 L. Tarquinius Superbus 534 - 5099The Circus MaximusThe largest arena in Rome it was a building for spectacles from the time of the Kings. The Circus was periodically repaired and improved. It measured 600x200m and had a capacity of some 320,000. The cicus was used for chariot racing of which the most impo%rtant were those of the Ludi Romani.W)The civil war (Caesar) - Africa and MundaAfter his return from Egypt Caesar moved quickly to Africa ariving there at the end of 47. There he defeated the Pompeian forces at Thapsus. Cato who had been left in charge of the garrison at Utica committed suicide thus eluding Caesar's mercy which woul#d have been unbearable to the man.After summer in Rome Caesar moved to Spain where by rights he should have been defeated at the battle of Munda (45 BC). His opponent was Labienus his old number two from Gaul. Labienus' skillful manouvering drew Caesar into accepting battle on unfavourable terrain. Luck in the form of a confusion which led to panic in part of the Pompeian army favoured Caesar and he won the battle decisively. Of the battle he remarked that he had often fought for victory but this was the first time he had fought for his life./The civil war (Caesar) - the war against PompeyUnwilling to return to Rome except as Consul (and thus legally protected) Caesar launched a lightening offensive in the spring of 49 BC. Given his readiness and their unreadiness it is odd that his opponents were willing to force him to make this choice. cIn a matter of weeks Caesar conquered Italy and Pompey only just escaped with his army to Greece. After securing his rear by defeating the Pompeian armies in Spain Caesar followed with half his army (transports were insufficient) and the rest followed with Antony after an agonising delay. Caesar attempted to blockade Pompey with circumvallations but a defeat forced him to withdraw. Pompey enjoyed a far superior position strategically but was not master of his own house. He gave battle at Pharsalus (48 BC) and was decisively beaten by the smaller but far more experienced Caesarians. Pompey escaped to (Egypt where he was murdered by Ptolemy.,0The civil war (Caesar) - the Alexandran CampaignAfter following Pompey to Egypt (48 BC) Caesar allowed himself to become embroiled in events there. He took it upon himself to settle the dynastic dispute between Ptolemy and Cleopatra in favour of the latter. Ptolemy's ministers set the royal army on Cae5sar and he only extricated himself with difficulty. After defeating Ptolemy Caesar is suposed to have spent two months sailing on the Nile with Cleopatra who had become his mistress.In 47 Caesar returned to Rome defeating on his way Pharnaces in a lightning campaign. Despite the speed of the campaign the battle of Zela was nonetheless hard fought. It was of the campaign that Caesar made his famous boast 'Veni Vidi Vici' which in the @circumstances was unfair to the courage of Pharnaces' soldiers.I The ColosseumBegun by Vespasian and completed under Titus in AD 80. It was originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre. The name Colosseum began to be used in the middle ages and comes from a giant statue of Nero nearby. The stadium held some 50,000 spectators.rIt remained in use for hundreds of years being periodically repaired. It was used for the last time around AD 523.Whether Christians were ever martyred there is unclear. Gladiatorial contests were ended in AD 397, renewed under Valentius III and finally ended from AD 438. After this only wild beast hunts were permitted.The conquest of Gaul (Caesar)The Gallic war was launched in 58 BC so far as we can tell without any authority from the Senate. The motive of the war seems to have been entirely to allow Caesar to obtain money and prestige. It was a spectacular success. The war began with Caesar preventing the migration of the Helvetii. He then destroyed the army of the German prince Ariovistus who Caesar believed would otherwise have dominaed the Gauls. In the next five years Caesar conquered the whole of Gaul even find6ing time for two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54.In 52 Caesar faced a serious crisis when the Gauls under Vercingetorix rose in rebellion. Caesar was defeated at Gergovia and forced to withdraw from his siege of that town. However Vercingetorix was repulsed and retired to Alesia. Here Caesar completed a massive double circumvallation. When the massive relieving army arrived Caesar's fortifications held out and that army dispersed. Vercingetorix remained trapped inside and was forced to surrender. Caesar had him strangled at his triumph six years later.There were further outbreaks but Alesia marked the end of serious resistance. It is notable that no revolts were attempted during the civil wars of the 40's and 30's.v The PantheonThe first building was erected in 27 BC by Agrippa. It was completely rebuit by Hadrian who inscribed Agrippa's name on the frieze of the porch.Behind the porch lies a cylindrical temple with a dome. The height of the dome (43.3m) is precisely that of the diameter so the internal space is a perfect sphere. It is the largest dome ever covered with masonry.sThe Second Punic War 218 - 202 BC Main eventsU218 Hannibal leaves New Carthage. Victorious at the battles of the Ticinus and Trebia2217 Battle of Trasimene - Roman force annihilated.M216 Battle of Cannae. Some 80,000 Romans killed. Capua goes over to Hannibal."207 Hasdrubal defeated and killed.204 Scipio lands in Africa$202 Battle of Zama. Rome victorious.By the end of the war Rome had changed. She was no longer the dominant force of a confederacy but rather the absolute ruler. The senate had emerged victorious and its power and prestige was greatly enhanced. It would remain dominant util the time of the Grachii.The Twelve Caesars01. Julius Caesar 100BC-44BC, dictator from 48 BC02. Augustus 63BC-AD14, reigned from 31BC - AD14 (3. Tiberius 42BC-AD37, reigned AD14 - 37%4. Caligula AD12-41, reigned AD 37-41&5. Claudius 10BC-AD54, reigned AD41-54 6. Nero AD37-68, reigned AD54-68#7. Galba 3BC-AD69, reigned AD68-698. Otho AD 32-69, reigned AD69"9. Vitellius AD15-69, reigned AD69%10. Vespasian AD9-79, reigned AD69-79"11. Titus AD39-81, reigned AD79-81&12. Domitian AD 51-96, reigned AD81-96,Tiberius6Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus 42 BC - 16 March AD 37His reign began following the death of Augustus in AD 14 when he was 55. Before that he had shown himself a superb general. Never anything but naturally morose he was reduced to despair when required by Augustus to give up his first wife Vispania and marry Augustus' daughter Julia (recently widowed from Agrippa). For whatever reason he 'retired' to Rhodes in 6 BC to the intense disapproval of Augustus. The death of other possible heirs nonetheless allowed Tiberius to succeed to the throne.As a ruler Tiberius was efficient and careful. Many thought him mean because he spent little on entertainment. His reign was blighted by treason trials though much of our view here results from Tacitus' biased account.He retired to Capri in AD 26 but continued to govern from there. A conspiracy by his trusted lieutenant,Sejanus, was supressed in 31 AD.I like Tiberius very much. He had no time for flatterers and if he was misanthropic he had some cause. On governing he remarked that he 'had a wolf by the ears'. On leaving the Senate he was heard to mutter 'Oh generation fit for slavery!' He refused to introduce sumptuary laws remarking that he would get the blame for any attempt to enforce them. Thus 'If we are decent, we will behave well - the rich when they are surfeited, the poor because they have to.'I take him to have been a cynic who tried to do his duty. If nothing else his pride drove him to do this. In the end it was not enough. When he died he was unmourned. He was succeeded by Caligula.lTitus#Titus Flavius Vespasianus AD39 - 81Emperor from AD 79 to 81 Titus was the eldest son of Vespasian. Interestingly he was educated alongside Britannicus, Claudius' son. He was present at the banquet at which he was murdered.When Vespasian left Judaea to come to Rome Titus took over responsibility for the Jewish war capturing Jerusalem in AD 70. It is during his period in Judaea that he began his liason with Berenice. He effectively ruled as junior partner alongside his father. As praetorian prefect he was in effect the military arm of the regime and his role in suppressing dissent made him disliked. The praetorian guard arrested those who were suspected of disloyalty and did so publicly. Nonetheless he became popular after his accession though whether this popularity was projected backwards after his death during the reign of his less personable brothe Domitian is hard to say.He reigned only two years before being struck down by a fever. His death was greatly lamented (though Suetonius tells us that the senators spoke of him 'with greater gratitude and praise than they eves showed when he was alive').Trajan's MarketsBuilt in AD 100 - 112 between the Quirnal and Capitoline hills. The markets were a commercial quarter consisting of some 150 shops and offices together with a market hall. They were part of a larger complex of forum, basilica, libraries and the markets.The architect was Apollodorus.The markets themselves were built on five stories, were utilitarian and massive rather than grandiose and beautiful. A precursor to the architecture of the later empire.X Vespasian#Titus Flavius Vespasianus AD 9 - 79Born at Sabine Reate his father was a tax gatherer. His mother was of equestrian rank but her brother had entered the Senate. He commanded the left wing of the army in the successful invasion of Britain under Claudius. He obtained a suffect consulship under Nero and was proconsul in Africa. He fell into disfavour by falling asleep during one of Nero's singing performances but nonetheless obtained the command of the force sent to supress the Jewish rebellion in AD 67.On Nero's death he supported Galba but when he fell Vespasian began his own bid. His troops overwhelmed Vitellius' and he became emperor. He dated his rule from July 69 (the date the legions acclaimed him) rather than December when the Senate endorsed his appointment.He was known for his parsimony but following the civil wars which themselves came on top of Nero's extravagance this was simply common sense. Indeed this is really the quality which shines through his reign. His last words are suitably ironic. They are su@pposed to have been "Oh dear, I seem to be turning into a god". VitelliusAulus Vitellius AD 15 - 69A favourite of Caligula, Claudius and Nero. Commander of the legions in lower Germany his forces defeated Otho's easily enough but he then behaved as if the war was won. He quickly won a reputation for incompetence and debauchery.When Vespasian's legions marched against him his forces were ill prepared and were defeated in an initial engagement. Vitellius would have surrendered to Vespasian's brother, Flavius Sabinus, but his supporters rioted. Rome was still full of troops loyal to the Vitellian cause and Sabinus was besieged in the Capitol. This was taken. The future emperor Domitian escaped when a few of the Flavians managed to break out. Sabinus was captured and Vitellius was compelled to put him to death; no doubt Vitellius knew that clemency was his only chance but he was powerless. The Flavian armies arrived soon after. Vitellius tried to flee but was captured, tortured and his body impaled on a hook and flung in the Tiber.qThird Punic WarThe end of the second Punic war in 202 resulted in Carthage paying a huge indemnity and the virtual destructuion of her fleet. In addition there were political constraints which allowed Massinissa of Numidia to carry out an aggressive policy against the Carthaginians. Complaints from Carthage led to a commission being sent in 153 BC. Among the party was Cato who was deeply alarmed at the prosperous city he saw. After that he did everthing he could to have Carthage destroyed. Famously, he ended every speech 'and I give it as my opinion tha Carthage must be destroyed' He died in 149 so did not live to see it but his view prevailed.After further provocation Carthage declared war against Massinissa in 151. The war went badly for them and they quickly sent apologies to Rome. Rome was in no mood to listen and her armies arrived in Africa in 149. The Carthaginians sued for peace but could not tolerate the surrender terms proposed. The war was harder than the Romans expected but with the appointment of Scipio Aemilianus the siege was better handled. The city was stormed in 146 BC and utterly destroyed.Third Punic WarThe end of the second Punic war in 202 resulted in Carthage paying a huge indemnity and the virtual destructuion of her fleet. In addition there were political constraints which allowed Massinissa of Numidia to carry out an aggressive policy against the Carthaginians. Complaints from Carthage led to a commission being sent in 153 BC. Among the party was Cato who was deeply alarmed at the prosperous city he saw. After that he did everthing he could to have Carthage destroyed. Famously, he ended every speech 'and I give it as my opinion tha Carthage must be destroyed' He died in 149 so did not live to see it but his view prevailed.After further provocation Carthage declared war against Massinissa in 151. The war went badly for them and they quickly sent apologies to Rome. Rome was in no mood to listen and her armies arrived in Africa in 149. The Carthaginians sued for peace but could not tolerate the surrender terms proposed. The war was harder than the Romans expected but with the appointment of Scipio Aemilianus (grandson by adoption of Scipio Africanus) the siege was better handled. The city was stormed in 146 BC and utterly de stroyed.$Trajan"Marcus Ulpius Traianus AD 53 - 117Emperor from AD 98. A military man he was Governor of Upper Germany when he was chosen by Nerva as his adopted son and heir. This reflected Nerva's need to placate the praetorians. Nerva died in 98.As emperor Trajan pursued a policy of courtesy towards the Senate and expansion militarily. He conquered Dacia (modern Romania) in two campaigns against Decelabus in 102 and 106. The removal of Decelabus who had proved a bitter enemy of Rome was probably a necessity though the incorporation of Dacia into the empire was less clearly required and was given up in the folowing century by Aurelian. The Dacian campaigns were commemorated on Trajan's column which still stands at Rome.His campaign against Parthia was initially successful. Armenia was taken in 114 and the Parthian capital in 115. However revolts by the Jews and within Mesopotamia and attacks by the Parthians left the conquests precarious. Trajan died on his journey homeA in 117 and Hadrian gave up the conquered territory immediately.Trajan is famous among other things for his reply to Pliny who wished to know what to do with Christians. His reply was that if they persisted after being given the opportunity to recant they should be punished. But they were not to be sought out and annonymous accusations were to be ignored as not in keeping with the spirit of the age. His principate was generally held at the time and after to be wholly admirable. After the terror of Domitian one can understand why. Also he gratified the Roman love of c onquest.Hannibal0Son of Hamilcar Barca. Born 247 BC, died 183 BC.Hannibal was the most terrible enemy Rome had faced until this time. He led the Carthaginian army over the Alps in 218. His strategy seems to have been to break up the Roman confederacy and thereby reduce Rome to an insignificant power. He aimed to achieve this by defeating the Roman armies and thereby destroying Roman prestige. He succeeded in defeating the Romans in a series of battles of which Cannae is the most famous. This amounted to a battle of annhilation with almost the whole Roman army being k1illed (credible estimates go as high as 80,000).However the strategy failed. Central Italy remained loyal to the Romans who now refused to meet Hannibal in open combat. Those cities in the South that did go over to him needed to be defended. Eventually he ceased to be a threat and was recalled to Carthage in 203 after Scipio had launched his invasion. Defeated by Scipio at Zama in 202 he was active in urging realistic compromise on his compatriots. Suspected by the Romans of conspiring against them he fled to Antiochus. After the defeat of Antiochus he fled again. The Romans continued to pusue him and when they ordered his extradition form the refuge he had with Perusias of Bithynia he committed suicide.Generally believed to be one of the worlds greatest soldiers he must nonetheless take responsibility for the Second Punic war, one of the bloodiest the world has ever seen.Hadrian&Publius Aelius Hadrianus. AD 76 - 138.Hadrian became emperor in 117 following the death of Trajan. Doubts surround his accession - did Trajan really appoint him successor. Hadrian quickly gave up the atempt to hold Parthia and generally his approach was to seek the security of the empire behind existing frontiers. To this extent his reign can be seen as a turning point.Another interesting aspect of his approach was to see Rome as only a part of the empire. He spent more than half his reign outside Italy.Hadrian was not only a traveller but a man of real artistic sensibilities. He caused the building of the Pantheon but interestingly never allowed his name to be inscribed on any of the buildings for which he was responsible. The GrachiiTiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. It is from this date that the crisis of the Republic is usually dated. He believed that many of Rome's problems could be solved by the distribution to the landless mob of public land. Despite intense opposition he forced through a Land Commission to administer his scheme. When to protect his reforms he announced that he would stand for a second term he and some 300 of his supporters were murdered in the Forum by a mob led by the Senatorial faction.9His brother Gaius Gracchus was elected tribune in 123 BC.He instituted a huge programme of reforms. These included an agrarian law which built on the work of his brother. He also removed the rightof the senators to sit as jurors and replaced them with members of the equestrian order. He also tried but failed too get the franchise extended to the Latisn and to give Latin rghts to the Italian allies but this was rejected.Gaius managed to obtain a second tribuante but the Senate rallied against him and he was defeated on his attempt to win a third term in 121 BC. When he tried to defend his laws in a show of force. The senate saw this as a threat and Gaius and some 300 of his supporters were captured and put to death. Germanicus'Germanicus Iulius Caesar. 15 BC - 19 ADSon of Antonia he was adopted by Tiberius in AD 4. He was a popular figure and aparently able commander. However his judgement is considered suspect and his handling of the mutiny of the Rhine legions following the death of Augustus was not impressive. In AD 14 he led the repentant legions against the Germans and in this and subsequent campaigns he scored successes but no decisive victory. He visited the scene of Varus' defeat and interred the bones he found there. Tiberius recalled him from his German cEampaigns judging that the effort was not worth the risk or the cost.He was next sent by Tiberius to the East. While there he visited Egypt thereby offending Tiberius - the consent of the Emperor was required for any Senator to enter that country. On hs return to Syria he became embroiled in a feud with Piso. He forced Piso out but fell ill and died. Many believed he had been poisoned. His death provoked lamentations on an extravagant scale - perhaps an indication of how his affability was preffered to the dour temprament of Tiberius. He had nine children, among them Caligula the future emperor.MariusGaius Marius. 157 BC - 86 BCA remarkable man. A novus homo he became consul seven times. Having served with distinction in the army Marius achieved his first consulship in 107. By enrolling troops without regard to a property qualification he ended the army's manpower shortage but ins generally thought to have created the situation where the army looked to the general rather than the State.Fighting against Jugurtha with no great success he was lucky in that he was able to end the war through diplomacy. He celebrated a triumph in 104. His great victories were against the Cimbri and the Teutones in 102 and 101 when these tribes posed a serious threat to Rome.During the 90's he lost ground politically. However he again distinguished himsel in the Social War at the end of that decade. He became a bitter rival of Sulla and in a struggle for command of the campaign against Mithridates he was driven form the city and many of his supporters killed. After Sulla had lefgt for the East Marius joined forces with Cinna and took over in Rome again where he avenged himself in an appalling reign of terror. However shortly after regaining power Marius died.(Senatus Consultum UltimumThis amounted to a declaration of a public emergency. A resolution was passed by the Senate enjoining the consuls 'to see to it that the State comes to no harm.' It was used against, for example, Catiline and Caesar. With less than total success in the l atter case. MessalinaWife of Claudius and mother of his children, Octavia and Brittanicus. The sources are universally hostile to her and to some extent incredible. It is alleged that she competed with a leading prostitute of the day to see how many men each could service in a single night. Even harder to understand is her 'marriage' to Silius which seems to have been part of a plot against Claudius (she was still married to him!). How she could have expected the ceremony to stay secret is a mystery. At all events while Claudius dithered his freedmen ensured her quick elimination. The whole story is so odd it seem likely that some essential part of it has been twisted. Nonetheless we have it from Tacitus and Suetonius. She was about 22 when she died in AD 48.The Roman calendarThe Roman calendarUntil its reform by Julius Caesar in 46 BC the year was made up of 355 days divided into twelve months. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year an extra mont of 22 or 23 days was inserted. However the priests charged with this duty were incompeteknt and when Julius Caesar introduced his reforms in 46 BC he was obliged to lengthen that year by 90 days.The calendar introduced by Caesar is the one we still use today save that a slight error in the number of minutes in a year caused the calendar year and solar year to drift apart over the centuries leading to Pope Gregory introducing a slight adjustment i n the regularity of leap years.The Social WarThis is the name of the war fought between Rome and her Italian allies between 91 - 88 BC. The cause of the war was the demand by the allies for rights of Roman citizenship. Although initially successful the allies were forced on the defensive. Rome brought the conflict to an end by, in effect, conceding the rights demanded to those who had supported Rome and to those who would lay down their arms. AugustusOctavius 63 BC - AD 14Caesar's will revealed that Octavius to be his adopted son and heir. At 18 it seemed impossible that he could succeed. Nonetheless he outmanouvered the Senate who had hoped to use him against Antony. In due course he turned against Antony and became undisEputed master of the Roman world after the battle of Actium in 31 BC.In 27 BC Octavian returned the State to the people. But it was a sham - he received back all the provinces with a military presence and through his auctoritas continued to rule. At his time he was voted the title 'Augustus'.Under Augustus the conquest of Spain was finally completed. His generals Tiberius and Drusus pushed the frontier of Illyria to the Danube and the Alpine tribes were conquered. Germany too was added to the empire but almost immediately lost in the disaster6 which saw Varus with three legions destroyed in AD9.Augustus' greatest achievement was to retore Roman society after some 20 years opf civil war. The legnth of his reign allowed him to consolidate his revolution. Before Actium he was a ruthless revolutionary willing to murder his enemies if required. he consented to the murder of Antony in the imfamous proscriptions. After Actium he set about consolidating his power and rebuilding a society on its knees. His enormous skill as a politician enabled him to find a solution that escaped Caesar. The result was 9the Principate - neither outright monarchy nor Republic. CorbuloGnaeus Domitius CorbuloHe was the greatest general of his time. his son in law conspired and Corbulo was forced to commit suicide by Nero. Perhaps he did not know the fate which awaited him when Nero invited him to Greece in AD 66. He might have usefully followed the example of one of Tiberius' generals who declined to be relieved of his command and suggested that he would remain loyal so long as he was allowed to remain at the head of his troops. Wise old Tiberius was content to let matters rest there., DiocletianDiocletian was acclaimed Emperor by the army in 284 AD. Following a period of some 50 years when emperors lasted at most a few years before being killed by their own or a usurper's troops Diocletian turned out to be remarkable in that he reigned for 20 years before voluntarily retiring in 305. He died in 316 no doubt saddened to se the elaborate system of govenment he had put in place destroyed.His concept was to have joint rulers and although this broke down immediately the basic idea was adopted for much of Rome's subsequent history.He was a brilliant organiser and wholly reordered the administrative system with the number of provinces (to take on example) being doubled.Diocletian's reign brought the anarchy of the third century to and end. Rome's enemies were defeated and internal enemies destroyed. In particular when Britain was seized by the rebel Carausius Diocletian was obliged to let him be at first while urgent maqtters were dealt with. However in due course a successor was defeated and Britain brought back into the empire. nGaul'Some interesting facts about the Gauls!The Gauls did not only live on the French side of the Alps but on the Italian as well. This part of Gaul was known as Cisalpine Gaul and was the first to be conquered by the Romans.The Gauls defeated the Romans in a battle at the Allia river in 390 BC. The day (18 July) was ever after marked as unlucky in the Roman calendar. A few days later the Gauls cpatured Rome and sacked it. Only the Capitol held out. In due course the Gauls were persuaded to leave by a payment of gold. When the Romans complained that the weights were false the Gallic chiftain threw his sword on the other side and shouted 'Vae Victis' (woe to the vanquished).Long before Caesar's conquest of Gaul the Romans had established a province in the South of the country (hence 'Provence'). They effected their conquest of this area between 125 and 121 BC.